Political Parties

History of Political Parties

Political parties in Canada have formed and changed depending on the surrounding socioeconomic context. To best understand it, we can break down the history of political parties by eras in Canada.

Before 1867: Pre-Confederation Politics

Before confederation in 1867, politics was divided between the Tories and the Reformers. The Tories represented conservative elites who supported the British colonial system and valued order and tradition. The Reformers advocated for democratic reforms including responsible government, or where the executive is accountable to elected representatives rather than appointed governors. 

At the time, there were also regional movements that overall represented progressive and generally liberal ideals. The Clear Grits were based in Ontario and advocated for free trade and opposed privilege. Parti Rouge was based out of Quebec, and they opposed the Catholic Church’s dominance in politics and sought secularism.

After the Confederation, the political landscape was dominated by the Conservative Party and the Liberal Party.

1867-1900s: Post Confederation Era

The Conservative Party (later known as the Progressive Conservative Party), were led by Sir John A MacDonald, Canada’s first Prime Minister. His government promoted nation building projects and economic development including the Canadian Pacific Railway. They also introduced the National policy, which used protective tariffs to grow Canadian industries. However, the party also faced internal divisions and scandals, such as the Pacific Scandal of 1873.

Meanwhile, the Liberals were being led by Alexander Mackenzie and later, Wilfried Laurier. They served as the primary opposition against the Conservatives. They advocated for free trade, individual liberties and decentralised federalism. Laurier soon came to lead the government from 1896 to 1911, an era that promoted immigration and economic development, but his government struggled with issues such as the Manitoba Schools Question.

1900 – 1945: Early 20th Century

The Liberals were defeated in 1911 due to a controversy over a proposed free trade agreement with the United States. This led the Conservatives to rise to power under Rovert Borden. His leadership saw the country through World War I, post war economic hardship, conscription crisis, and a reduction of Conservative support particularly in Quebec.

The new century also saw the emergence of new political movements. 

The Progressive Party formed in the 1920s. Composed of discontent farmers from Western Canada, they advocated for lower tariffs and agricultural reforms. While the party never formed a government, it forced the major parties to address rural concerns. 

The Social Credit Party emerged during the Great Depression in Alberta. They stood for monetary reform and populist policies. 

The Cooperative Commonwealth Federal also emerged during this time. It was founded by farmers, labor groups, and intellectuals. They were Canada’s first major socialist party. They advocated for public ownership of key industries, universal healthcare, and social welfare programs. The party would soon emerge as the New Democratic Party (NDP) in 1961.

1945 – 1980s: Post War Era

After World War II, Canada’s support for political parties centralised around the Liberal and Conservative parties with the NDP emerging as a third force. The NDP represented the political left, and focused on labor rights, public healthcare, and social equity.

The Liberals expanded the social safety net by introducing unemployment insurance, old-age insurance, and healthcare initiatives. By the 1980s, the Liberals also brought significant cultural and constitutional changes through the introduction of official bilingualism, multiculturalism, and the  Patriation of the Constitution with the Charter of Rights and Freedoms in 1982.

Meanwhile, the Progressive Conservative (PC) Party rebranded in 1942. They did not assume power until 1950, where they expanded civil rights and Northern development. However, they were criticised for their lacking economic policies.  By the 1980s, the PC party had a majority government that focused on free trade agreements such as the Canada-US Free Trade Agreement. They also addressed constitutional issues through the Meech Lake and Charlottetown Accords. However, internal divisions and growing dissatisfaction with the party led to the rise of the Reform Party in 1987. 

The Reform Party represented Western Canada’s interests. It focused on fiscal conservatism, democratic reform, and opposition to the dominance of central Canada. They later became known as the Canadian Alliance in 2000.

The Bloc Québécois emerged as a sovereigntist party in 1991 meant to represent Quebec’s interests in federal politics. After the failure of the Meech Lake accord and the 1995 Quebec referendum on independence, the Bloc became a major player in Parliament.

1980s – 2000s: 

The Liberals were primarily in power from the 1990s to early 2000s. They focused on fiscal discipline, balanced budgets, and social programs. The government also opposed the Iraq War and legalized same-sex marriage.

In 2003, the Canadian Alliance merged with the PC to form the modern Conservative Party of Canada. Under Stephen Harper (from 2006-2015), the Conservatives focused on economic stability, tax cuts, and law and order policies. Under Harper’s leadership, the party shifted to a more right of centre political movement.

2010 – Present: the 21st Century

The Liberals came back to power in 2015 under Justin Trudeau. Trudeau campaigned on climate change, Indigenous reconciliation, and progressive social politics. 

Meanwhile, the Conservatives attempted to redefine conservatives in response to changing voter demographics with subsequent leaders Erin O’Toole and Pierre Poilievre.

The NDP reached its peak in 2011 under Jack Layton by becoming the Official Opposition. However, they struggled to maintain momentum, but focused on climate action and social equity.

Current Political Landscape

• Liberals: Centrist, emphasizing social progress, environmental protection, and economic innovation.
• Conservatives: Right-of-center, advocating for fiscal responsibility, traditional values, and limited government intervention.
• NDP: Left-wing, focusing on wealth redistribution, universal programs, and climate justice.
• Bloc Québécois: Regionalist, promoting Quebec sovereignty and autonomy.
• Green Party: Focused on environmental issues and ecological governance.

Political Party

A political party is a group that organizes around similar principles and values. They recruit and help run candidates by providing party resources. Most political parties in Canada function both on a federal and provincial level. Canada has a two and a half party system. This means that there are two major parties: the Liberals and the Conservatives, with the NDP being the half.

Democratic Advantages of Parties

• Voter accountability
• Represent aggregate interest
• Provide citizens with a way to participate in politics
• Recruit, select and train leaders
• Play key role in linking the state and society

Federal Political Parties

A political party must win a majority of seats in an election to form a government. A candidate is usually nominated by a political party to represent them in a riding or are running independently. Voters choose a candidate to represent their riding. A party that wins a majority of the MP seats forms the government and the party leader becomes the Prime Minister.

Current Major Political Parties

1. Liberal Party
   The party’s current leader is Mark Carney who is also the current Prime Minister. The party is fiscally responsible but socially progressive. The party focuses on social progress, environmental protection and economic innovation.
2. The Conservative Party
   The party’s current leader is Pierre Poilievre. The party favors low taxes, fewer regulations on business and a stronger regime of law-and-order.
3. The New Democratic Party (NDP)
   The party does not have a permanent leader at the moment. The party focuses on wealth redistribution, universal programs, and climate justice.
4. Le Bloc Quebecois
   The current leader is Yves-François Blanchet. Le Bloc was Canada’s first national political party to openly support Quebec separatism. It only runs candidates in Quebec and focuses on provincial issues such as environmental and fiscal sovereignty.
5. Green Party
   The current leaders of the party are Elizabeth May and Jonathan Pedneault. The party initially only focused on environmental issues but have since expanded their policies to human rights, poverty, health care, and electoral system reform.

Party Leaders Overview

1. Liberal Party of Canada: Leader: Mark Carney

   • Economic Background and Bank of Canada
     • Carney studied Economics at both Harvard and Oxford University. He worked at Goldman Sachs. Carney then went on to become one of four deputy governors for the Bank of Canada. He was then appointed as senior associate deputy minister in the Department of Finance and represented Canada at G7 meetings. From 2008 to 2013, he became Governor of the Bank of Canada. During this time he also was chair of the Financial Stability Board.
   • Bank of England and the UN
     • Carney crossed the pond and became the Governor of the Bank of England serving as its first non-British governor. Soon after he was appointed as a special envoy on climate action and finance for the United Nations.
   • Transition to Politics
     • He advised Justin Trudeau’s liberal government during COVID-19 and in 2024 was an advisor for the Liberal Party’s economic growth task force. In 2015, Carney ran for the Liberal Party of Canada leadership. Once he became Prime Minister, he removed the Carbon Tax.

2. Conservative Party of Canada: Leader: Pierre Poilievre

   • Early Political Involvement
     • Poilievre’s political journey began while at the University of Calgary, where he studied international relations. He became actively involved with the Reform Party and later the Canadian Alliance, reflecting his early commitment to conservative principles. During this period, he also worked as a parliamentary assistant to various Conservative Members of Parliament (MPs).
   • Member of Parliament
     • In 2004, at the age of 25, Poilievre was elected as the MP for Nepean—Carleton in Ontario. He was re-elected in subsequent elections, representing the re-established riding of Carleton from 2015 until 2025.
   • Parliamentary Roles and Ministerial Positions
     • After the Conservative Party’s victory in 2006, Poilievre was appointed as Parliamentary Secretary to the President of the Treasury Board, and later to the Prime Minister and the Minister of Transport, Infrastructure, and Communities.
     • In 2013, he was appointed Minister of State for Democratic Reform, where he introduced the Fair Elections Act, aiming to reform Canada’s electoral system. In 2015, he briefly served as Minister of Employment and Social Development, overseeing programs related to employment and social services.
   • Opposition and Leadership
     • Following the Conservative Party’s defeat in the 2015 federal election, Poilievre continued to serve as an MP and became a critic of the Liberal government’s fiscal policies, serving as the Conservative Party’s finance critic. His critiques focused on government spending and economic management, resonating with fiscal conservatives. In September 2022, Poilievre was elected leader of the Conservative Party of Canada, winning on the first ballot with significant support.
   • Leadership Style and Political Positions
     • Poilievre’s leadership has been characterized by a populist approach, emphasizing individual freedoms and economic growth. He has been a vocal critic of policies such as the carbon tax and has pledged to reduce climate-change regulations to bolster the energy sector. His support for the “Freedom Convoys” during the COVID-19 pandemic, which opposed vaccine mandates, further solidified his appeal among certain voter demographics.

3. New Democratic Party (NDP)

4. Bloc Québécois: Leader: Yves- François Blanchet

   • Provincial Political Career
     • Blanchet’s political journey began with the Parti Québécois (PQ). In 2008, he was elected to the National Assembly of Quebec, representing the riding of Drummond. He secured re-election in 2012, this time representing the riding of Johnson. During his tenure, he was appointed Minister of Sustainable Development, Environment, Wildlife, and Parks in December 2012, serving under Premier Pauline Marois. In this role, Blanchet was responsible for environmental policies and initiatives in Quebec. His term as minister concluded in April 2014 following the PQ’s electoral defeat, and he subsequently lost his seat in the National Assembly to a Coalition Avenir Québec candidate.
   • Transition to Federal Politics
     • After a period outside of active politics, during which he worked as a columnist and political commentator, Blanchet returned to the political arena. In January 2019, he was chosen as the leader of the Bloc Québécois (BQ), a federal party advocating for Quebec’s interests and sovereignty.
     • Under his leadership, the BQ experienced a resurgence. In the 2019 federal election, the party increased its representation from 10 to 32 seats, overtaking the New Democratic Party to become the third-largest party in the House of Commons. Blanchet himself was elected as the Member of Parliament for Beloeil—Chambly.
   • Leadership and Policy Focus
     • Blanchet’s leadership has been characterized by a strong emphasis on Quebec nationalism and environmental issues. He has been a vocal supporter of Quebec’s secularism law, known as Bill 21, which prohibits certain public sector employees from wearing religious symbols at work. Additionally, he has advocated for greater provincial autonomy and has positioned the BQ as a defender of Quebec’s distinct identity within the Canadian federation.
   • Recent Developments
     • In the 2021 federal election, the Bloc Québécois maintained its 32 seats under Blanchet’s leadership, continuing to play a significant role in federal politics. In May 2023, Blanchet received a strong endorsement from his party, securing 97% support in a leadership confidence vote, indicating robust backing within the BQ.

5. Green Party of Canada: Leader: Elizabeth May

   • Early Activism and Environmental Advocacy
     • Elizabeth May served as the founding executive director of the Sierra Club of Canada from 1989 to 2006, where she played a pivotal role in advocating for environmental policies and raising public awareness about ecological issues.
   • Leadership of the Green Party of Canada
     • In 2006, May was elected as the leader of the Green Party of Canada, becoming the party’s ninth leader. Under her leadership, the party gained increased visibility and credibility on the national stage. May’s efforts culminated in a historic victory in the 2011 federal election when she became the first Green Party candidate elected to the House of Commons, representing the riding of Saanich—Gulf Islands in British Columbia.
   • Parliamentary Contributions
     • As a Member of Parliament (MP), May has been an advocate for environmental sustainability, climate action, and democratic reform. She has introduced and supported legislation aimed at addressing climate change, promoting renewable energy, and protecting Canada’s natural heritage. Her tenure in Parliament has been marked by her dedication to collaborative politics and her efforts to work across party lines.
   • Resignation and Return to Leadership
     • In November 2019, May announced her resignation as leader of the Green Party but continued to serve as the MP for Saanich—Gulf Islands. Her departure from the leadership role was due to personal reasons.
     • However, in 2022, she returned to the leadership of the Green Party, reaffirming her commitment to environmental advocacy and progressive policies.
   • Recent Developments
     • As of January 2025, May continues to serve as the leader of the Green Party of Canada and as the MP for Saanich—Gulf Islands.

Independents

Anyone can run in an election as long as they comply with the legal requirements and election rules. And if they are not associated with a party, they can run as an Independent. Independents have the freedom to decide their own policy platform. Some Independents are elected as Independents from the beginning, while others start with a party and later leave for various reasons. However an Independent can later join a political party if they wish.

Advantages

1. Freedom from Party Discipline
   Party politicians have to vote along party lines, meaning they vote however the rest of their party is voting. Independents can vote based on their own beliefs and the interests of their constituents.
2. Ability to Represent Constituents Directly
   An Independent is usually someone who lives in the district and/or knows the area and its residents very well. This makes them uniquely positioned to attend to the needs of the community.
3. Bypassing Party Politics
   Independent politicians are not bound by party politics. Instead, they can focus entirely on their district’s unique needs. This can gain the favour of voters opposed to party politics and partisanship.
4. Media Attention
   Independents are usually rare, which means the media can give them attention. This is especially true when they take a strong or unique position on key issues.

Disadvantages

1. Lack of Party Resources
   Party-affiliated politicians receive funding, staff, resources, and campaign support from their parties. Independents have to fundraise and organize matters on their own and using their own resources.
2. Limited Speaking Time and Influence in the Legislature
   Parties control the speaking time of debates and question period in the legislature. An Independent has to formally request permission from the Speaker to speak. The Speaker exercises their discretion in allowing or denying the request. Independent members also do not automatically get seats on commissions. They have to be invited by committees or appointed. These commissions are often essential in shaping legislation and holding the government accountable.
3. Difficulties Passing Legislation
   Most bills are passed in the legislature by the ruling government or the opposition party. An Independent can introduce Private Members Bills, but tabling it and getting support to pass them are often difficult.
4. Electoral Challenges
   Running as an Independent in an election can be tough. Voters tend to prefer party-backed candidates as they see them as more trustworthy and capable of influencing policy.

How to Become a Party Member

To join most political parties in Canada, you must be:

• At least 14 years old (depends on the party)
• Be a Canadian citizen or permanent resident
  • Some parties allow individuals who live abroad to maintain a membership as long as they still have ties to Canada
• Not be a member of another political party
• Sign a declaration affirming your support for the party’s principles

Apply for Membership

You can then apply for a membership of your chosen political party by filling out a form (online, in-person, or by mail) and paying a fee. Parties charge an annual membership fee. Some parties provide discounts or extend free memberships for seniors, youth, or people with low incomes.

Membership Fees by Party as of January 8, 2025

Liberal Party of Canada → $0

Conservative Party of Canada → $15 (1 year)

New Democratic Party → $5 (depends on the area you live in and your age)

Green Party of Canada → $10

Once you submit the forms and payment, you’ll receive a confirmation that can include a membership card. You will also start receiving information about local events and newsletters. Memberships are typically valid for one year and must be renewed to be granted voting privileges. 

What are the perks of being a member?

• Be a delegate at national conventions
• Ability to vote in leadership races
• Influence party policy

Important to Note

Registering as a member of a political party does not affect your ability to vote for other parties in elections. It may affect your membership ability with another political party.

Membership for a provincial political party does not grant you an automatic membership with the federal provincial party. You need to register separately for each party.

Registration is active for three years from the date of registration, after three years, you must register again. Each party has different rules on active registration after a certain time period. Please note you may need to re register and pay again based on the party.

Party Leadership Race

Political Parties launch leadership races to choose a party leader and the party’s candidate for Prime Minister. A leadership race is triggered when the current leader resigns or is ousted. This is usually after the party loses an election or the leader receives a poor leadership review.

To run, candidates must meet the party’s specific requirements. This includes being a member of the party in good standing, securing endorsements from a certain number of party members on nomination papers, and paying an entry fee.

General Timeline of a Leadership Race

1. Leadership race is announced and rules are set
2. Nomination Period: Candidates have to prepare and submit their applications. These must meet outlined party requirements in order to be recognized. 
3. Campaign period 
4. Membership Deadline: This is the cutoff date for new members to join the party and be eligible to vote
5. Voting period 
6. Party leader chosen and announced after votes are counted

Nomination of Candidates for Party Leader

While each party has its specific rules, they generally require that candidates:

• Be a member of the party for an outlined period of time before they can run for leadership
• Be a Canadian citizen
• Be at least 18 years old 
• Require a minimum number of party members or members of the party’s governing body to endorse them

If a candidate is eligible, they can submit official nomination papers and pay the required fees. The candidate then undergoes a vetting process before they launch into their official leadership campaign.

Nomination Fees

Nomination fees are required by parties to offset administrative costs and help ensure the seriousness of candidates.

Breakdown of most recent nomination fees:

• Conservative Party of Canada during the 2022 Leadership Race:  $300K of total fees 
• Liberal Party of Canada during the 2025 leadership race: $350K total fees 
• New Democratic Party during the 2025 leadership race: $100K total fees
• Green Party of Canada during the 2020 leadership race: $50K total fees:

Where does the money come from?

• Personal funds of candidate
• Donations from supporters
  • Only individuals can make contributions. Under Canadian law, corporations, unions and other entities cannot donate to candidates.
  • Donations must be in accordance with Elections Canada’s annual contribution limit. As of February 2025, the maximum contribution an individual can make is $1700.
• Fundraising events: Has the same donation rules as above.

Other Fundraising Guidelines 

The Canada Elections Act sets out some rules on the sources and uses of money. Only Canadian citizens or permanent residents can contribute to political campaigns and candidates. Contributions over $200 must be disclosed publicly, including the donors name and address.

Federal political parties can receive public subsidies through the Political Contributions Tax Credit. However, this does not usually directly affect nomination fees. Elections Canada oversees compliance to the financial regulations. If the rules are broken, it can lead to penalties including fines and the disqualification of candidates.

Campaigning

Once the candidates submit their papers, they can conduct a full-scale campaign. Each candidate presents their vision for the party. This includes their perspective on major issues like the economy, healthcare, climate change, or internal party reforms. 

While campaigning, candidates travel across provinces and riding to connect with members. They also organize membership drives to recruit new party members who are in good standing and can vote. This helps to expand their voter base. All the while, candidates engage in debates and town hall discussions and launch media campaigns to reach potential voters.

Financial Rules During Campaigns

Parties can set limits on how much candidates can spend during the campaign. This ensures that there is fairness between candidates. While candidates must raise money to support their campaigns, these are still subject to maximums outlined in Canadian election laws. Candidates must disclose their finances including expenditures and sources of donations.

Past Leadership Races

Liberal Party Leadership Race (2013)

Micheal Ignatieff resigned after the party came third place in the House of Commons following the 2011 election. The party used a weighted one-member-one-vote + preferential ballot system, where the votes were distributed equally among all ridings. Justin Trudeau won with over 80% of the vote. 

The New Democratic Party Leadership Race (2017)

The race came after the NDP lost official party status following the 2015 election, and led to the resignation of Thomas Mulclair. There were 4 candidates running for the position. The party used a one-member-one-vote system and a ranked ballot, where any member could vote online, by mail, or in person. This was non weighted, so results were determined by the total number of votes across Canada equally. Jagmeet Singh won with 53.6% of the vote. 

The Conservative Party Leadership Race (2017)

The race came after the resignation of Stephen Harper from the Conservative Party of Canada following Justin Trudeau’s victory in the 2015 federal election. There were 13 candidates (including Andrew Scheer, Erin O’Toole, and Maxime Bernier).  A one-person-one-vote and ranked ballot system was used. Votes were also weighted so that each of Canada’s 338 ridings contributed to the vote equally, regardless of how many individual members there were in each riding. Scheer was chosen first with 50.95% of the points but Bernier was a close second at 49.05%.

The Green Party Leadership Race (2020)

Elizabeth May stepped down as the leader after 13 years, instigating the leadership race. There were 8 candidates running. A ranked ballot + one-member-one-vote system was used and members voted online. Annamie Paul won.

The Conservative Party Leadership Race (2022)

After losing the 2021 federal election, Erin O’Toole resigned from his position as a party leader. Candidates included Leslyn Lewis, Jean Charest, and Pierre Poilievre. A ranked weighted + one-member-one-vote with a weighted riding system was used. Members ranked their candidate choices in order of preference, and all of the federal electoral districts are given equal weight regardless of the number of party members in that riding. Pierre Poilievre secured more than 68% of the available points.

Voting Systems in Leadership Races

There are 3 main voting systems in leadership races.

1. Delegate Based System

Members elect delegates to represent them at a leadership convention. The members attend the convention and vote on successive ballots in rounds until one candidate receives a majority. After each round, the candidate with the fewest votes is eliminated, and the delegates who supported that candidate must shift their vote. While this has historically been the way of choosing a party, it has become much less common now.

Advantages	Disadvantages
Allows for collaboration since eliminated candidates can negotiate deals in real time and direct their support base towards other candidates	Less direct representation where members do not get to directly choose their leader. It all depends on the delegates they elect. In the past, delegates tended to prioritize personal preferences or strategic considerations rather than the will of the broad membership, leading to criticisms of elitism. In person conventions are expensive and logistically difficult to plan

2. One-Member-One-Vote (OMOV)

Each party member in good standing casts a vote in person, online, or by mail. Results can be counted directly or weighted by riding. Direct OMOV means that every vote in Canada is counted equally. In a Weighted OMOV there are 100 points per riding in Canada, and voters are weighted against the 100 points. This ensures that each riding has equal influence regardless of individual number of memberships, avoiding overrepresentation of regions where a large number of the population are members.

Advantages	Disadvantages
The process is democratic in ensuring that all members have an equal say in selecting a party leader Allows for members across Canada to participate, fostering inclusivity.	Candidates may focus on recruiting new members rather than engaging existing ones, which can lead to many short term memberships Direct OMOV can give a disproportionate influence to ridings with large memberships. Weighted OMOV can dilute the votes of members in populous regions.

3. Ranked Ballot

Party members in good standing rank the candidates in order of preference. The individual who is chosen as the first choice most often is selected as the party leader. If no candidate wins a majority of first choice votes, then the candidate with the fewest votes is eliminated and that candidate’s second-choice votes are redistributed. This process repeats until one candidate secures a majority.

Advantages	Disadvantages
Allows for fair representation by making sure the leader has majority support among members. Members can still support their preferred candidate without worry of potentially wasting or splitting the overall vote	The process can be manipulated by some from a strategic point of view